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Where Did the Red Haired Mummies Come From

Written By martes, 28 de diciembre de 2021 Add Comment Edit

Serial publication of mummies observed in the Tarim Washstand

The "Xiaohe Ma", exhibited in Xinjiang Museum, is one of the oldest Tarim mummies, dating more than 3800 years past. The "Princess of Xiaohe" see downstairs

The Tarim mummies are a serial of mummies discovered in the Tarim Basin in inst-daylight Xinjiang, China, which date back 1800 B.C. to the first centuries B.C.,[1] [2] [3] with a new group of individuals fresh dated to between c. 2100 and 1700 BC.[4] The mummies, peculiarly the former ones, are ofttimes related to with the comportment of the Indo-European Tocharian languages in the Tarim Basin,[5] although the evidence is non totally conclusive and many centuries severalize these mummies from the first attestation of the Tocharian languages in penning. Victor H. Mair's team finished that the mummies are White, likely speakers of Indo-European languages such As the Tocharians.[6] [7] A study publicized in 2021 suggests that the "earliest Tarim Basin cultures appear to have arisen from admixture 'tween locals of Ancient North Eurasian and Northeast Asians descent.[8]

Archaeological record [edit]

At the get-go of the 20th century, European explorers such as Sven Hedin, Albert von Le Coq and Sir Aurel Gertrude Stein altogether recounted their discoveries of desiccated bodies in their hunt for antiquities in Central Asia.[9] Since then, numerous other mummies have been launch and analyzed, many of them now displayed in the museums of Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. Most of these mummies were found on the eastern end of the Tarim Lavatory (more or less the expanse of Lopnur, Subeshi neighboring Turpan, Loulan, Kumul), or along the southern edge of the Tarim Lavatory (Khotan, Niya, and Cherchen or Qiemo).

The earliest Tarim mummies, found at Qäwrighul and dated to 1800 BCE, are of a Caucasian physical type whose closest tie is to the Bronze Age populations of southern Siberia, Kazakhstan, Key Asia, and the Lower Volga.[2]

The cemetery at Yanbulaq contained 29 mummies which unfashionable from 1100 to 500 B.C.E., 21 of which are Mongoloid—the earliest Mongoloid mummies found in the Tarim Basin—and octonary of which are of the same Caucasian physical case as found at Qäwrighul.[2]

Notable mummies are the tall, carmine-haired "Chärchän man" or the "Ur-David" (1000 BCE); his son (1000 BCE), a limited 1-year-old baby with brown hair sticking out from under a red and blue mat up ceiling, with two stones positioned over its eyes; the "Hami Momma" (c. 1400–800 BCE), a "red-headed beauty" base in Qizilchoqa; and the "Witches of Subeshi" (4th or 3rd century BCE), WHO wore 2-hoof-mindful (0.61 m) black felt conical hats with a flat brim.[10] Also found at Subeshi was a humanity with traces of a surgical operation on his belly; the incision is sewn skyward with sutures made of horsehair fabric.[11]

The Taklamakan Desert is very dry, which helped considerably in the preservation of the mummies.

Many of the mummies have been establish in real good shape, owing to the dryness of the forsake and the dehydration IT produced in the corpses. The mummies portion many typical Caucasian body features (long stature, high cheekbones, recessed eyes), and many of them have their hair physically intact, ranging in color from blond to red to coffee, and generally seven-day, curly and adorned. Their costumes, and especially textiles, may indicate a common origin with Indo-European Neolithic clothing techniques or a common low-floor textile engineering science. Chärchän man wore a red twill tunic and tartan leggings. Textile expert Elizabeth Wayland Barber, who examined the tartan-style cloth, discusses similarities between it and fragments recovered from salt mines associated with the Hallstatt culture.[12] Arsenic a issue of the arid conditions and exceptional preservation, tattoos experience been identified on mummies from individual sites or so the Tarim Basinful, including Qäwrighul, Yanghai, Shengjindian, Shanpula (Sampul), Zaghunluq, and Qizilchoqa.[13]

It has been asserted that the textiles found with the mummies are of an early European textile type settled on close similarities to fragmentary textiles found in salt mines in Austria, dating from the forward millennium BCE. Anthropologist Irene Good, a specialist in early Eurasian textiles, renowned the plain-woven inclined twill pattern indicated the use of a rather polished loom and aforesaid that the textile is "the easternmost known example of this kind of weaving technique."

Beginning studies [edit]

In 1995, Mair claimed that "the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid" with east Eastern migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 long time ago piece the Uyghur peoples arrived around the year 842. In trying to trace the origins of these populations, Victor Mair's team suggested that they English hawthorn have arrived in the region by way of the Pamir Mountains about 5,000 years ago.

Mair has claimed that:

The new finds are also forcing a reexamination of old Chinese books that describe historical or fabled figures of great height, with deep-set strict Beaver State green eyes, long noses, full beards, and chromatic or blond tomentum. Scholars have traditionally scoffed at these accounts, but it now seems that they Crataegus oxycantha be true.[14]

In 2007 the Chinese government allowed a General Geographic Bon ton team headed by Spencer Wells to examine the mummies' DNA. Wells was capable to extract undegraded DNA from the internal tissues. The scientists extracted enough material to advise the Tarim Basin was continually inhabited from 2000 BCE to 300 BCE and explorative results indicate the mass, instead than having a azygous origin, originated from Europe, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley and other regions withal to live determined.[15]

A 2008 study aside Jilin University showed that the Yuansha population has relatively faithful relationships with the innovative populations of South Central Asia and Indus Valley, too A with the ancient population of Chawuhu.[16] [17]

'tween 2009 and 2015, the cadaver of 92 individuals found at the Xiaohe Tomb complex were analyzed for Y-DNA and mtDNA markers. Genetic analyses of the mummies showed that the parent lineages of the Xiaohe people originated from some East Asia and West Eurasia, whereas the paternal lineages all originated from West Eurasia.[15]

Mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that enatic lineages carried past the the great unwashe at Xiaohe enclosed mtDNA haplogroups H, K, U5, U7, U2e, T and R*, which are now most common in West Eurasia. Also found were haplogroups common in modern populations from East Asia: B5, D and G2a. Haplogroups now common in Central Asian or Geographic region populations included: C4 and C5. Haplogroups later regarded equally typically South Asiatic included M5 and M*.[17]

A 2018 study the fatherlike lines of male remains surveyed nearly all – 11 out of 12, or around 92% – belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup R1a1-M17 (Z93-)[18], which are now all but general in Yankee India and Eastern European Economic Community; the other belonged to the exceptionally rare paragroup K* (M9) from Asia.[19] [20]

The geographic location of this admixing is unfamiliar, although south Siberia is expected.[15]

The Xiaohe mummy (not Princess of Xiaohe) exhibited in Xinjiang Museum - wide-cut view

Island historian Ji Xianlin says China "supported and admired" research away foreign experts into the mummies. "Even so, within China a teensy-weensy group of ethnic separatists have assumed advantage of this chance to stir up trouble and are acting like buffoons. Some of them feature fifty-fifty styled themselves the descendants of these ancient 'White race' with the aim of dividing the motherland. But these reprobate Acts will not succeed."[6] Barber addresses these claims by noting that "The Loulan Beauty is scarcely closer to 'Turkic' in her anthropological type than she is to Han Chinese. The body and facial forms related to with Turks and Mongols began to appear in the Tarim cemeteries only in the first millennium BCE, cardinal hundred old age after this cleaning woman lived."[21] Delinquent to the "fear of fuelling breakaway currents", the Xinjiang museum, regardless of dating, displays all their mummies, both Tarim and Han, together.[6]

The School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Nationalist China, analyzed in 2021 13 individuals from the Tarim basin, dated to c. 2100-1700 BC, and appointed 2 to Y-haplogroup R1b1b-PH155/PH4796 (R1b1c in ISOGG2016), 1 — to Y-haplogroup R1-PF6136 (xR1a, xR1b1a).[4] [22]

Posited origins [edit]

Mallory and Mair (2000) propose the movement of at the least two Caucasian natural types into the Tarim Basin. The authors low-level these types with the Tocharian and Iranian (Saka) branches of the Indo-European language family, severally.[23] However, archeology and linguistics professor Elizabeth I Wayland Samuel Barber cautions against assuming the mummies spoke Tocharian, noting a gap of about a thousand eld between the mummies and the genuine Tocharians: "people can change their speech at will, without altering a azygos gene or freckle."[24]

Then again, linguistics professor Ronald Kim argues that the measure of divergence betwixt the attested Tocharian languages necessitates that Proto-Tocharian essential have preceded their attestation by a millennium or so. This would coincide with the timeframe during which the Tarim Basin culture was in the neighborhood.[25]

B. E. Hemphill's biodistance psychoanalysis of cranial prosody (As cited in Larsen 2002 and Schurr 2001) has questioned the designation of the Tarim Basin population American Samoa European, noting that the earlier universe has close affinities to the Indus Valley population, and the later o universe with the Oxus River valley population. Because craniometry derriere produce results which ready no sense in the least (e.g. the conclusion relationship between Time period populations in Ukraine and Portugal) and consequently lack any historical significant, some putative genetic relationship must comprise consistent with geographical plausibility and bear the support of other grounds.[26]

Han Kangxin, who examined the skulls of 302 mummies, found the closest relatives of the earlier Tarim Basin universe in the populations of the Afanasevo culture set immediately northland of the Tarim Washstand and the Andronovo culture that spanned Kazakhstan and reached southwards into Cicily Isabel Fairfield Central Asia and the Altai.[27]

Map of Eurasia showing the location of the Xiaohe cemetery, the Tarim Basin and the areas inhabited by cultures associated with the settlement of the Tarim Basin.

It is the Afanasevo civilization to which Mallory &adenylic acid; Mair (2000:294–296, 314–318) trace the earliest Bronze Age settlers of the Tarim and Turpan basins. The Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 B.C.E.) displays cultural and biological science connections with the Indo-European-associated cultures of the Eurasian Steppe yet predates the specifically Indo-Iranian-connected Andronovo culture (c. 2000–900 BCE) enough to isolate the Tocharian languages from Indo-Iranian linguistic innovations like satemization.[28]

Hemphill & Mallory (2004) confirm a second Caucasian physical character at Alwighul (700–1 BCE) and Krorän (200 Cerium) different from the earlier one found at Qäwrighul (1800 B.C.E.) and Yanbulaq (1100–500 BCE):

This study confirms the assertion of Han [1998] that the occupants of Alwighul and Krorän are not derivable from early-European steppe populations, but share closest affinities with Eastern Sea populations. Further, the results demonstrate that much Eastern Mediterraneans Crataegus laevigata likewise be ground at the urban centers of the Oxus civilization located north Bactrian haven to the west. Affinities are specially close between Krorän, the a la mode of the Xinjiang samples, and Sapalli, the earliest of the Bactrian samples, while Alwighul and later samples from Bactria exhibit more distant phenetic affinities. This pattern whitethorn reflect a mathematical major shift in interregional contacts in Central Asia in the crude centuries of the second millenary BCE.

Mallory and Mair subordinate this by and by (700 BCE–200 CE) Caucasian physical type with the populations World Health Organization introduced the Iranian Saka language to the western part of the Tarim basin.[29]

Mair concluded:

From the evidence available, we have found that during the first 1,000 years afterwards the Loulan Beauty, the exclusively settlers in the Tarim Basin were Caucasoid. East Asian peoples just began showing heavenward in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 age ago, Mair said, while the Uighur peoples arrived after the give way of the Orkon Uighur Kingdom, largely based in modern daylight Outer Mongolia, around the year 842.[6]

Historical records and joint texts [edit]

Chinese sources [edit]

Western Regions (Hsi-yu; Chinese: 西域; pinyin: Xīyù ; Wade–Giles: Hsi1-yü4 ) is the historical name in China, between the 3rd hundred BCE and 8th one C Common Era for regions west of Yumen Pass, including the Tarim and Central Asia.[30]

Some of the peoples of the Western Regions were described in Chinese sources as having entire beards, red operating theater blond hair, deep-set blue or green eyes and alto noses.[31] According to Chinese sources, the city states of the Tarim reached the height of their political power during the 3rd to 4th centuries CE,[32] although this Crataegus laevigata actually suggest an increment in Chinese involvement in the Tarim, following the break down of the Kushan Empire.

The Yuezhi [delete]

Credit to the Yuezhi discover in Guanzi was made around 7th 100 BCE by the Chinese economist Guan Zhong, though the book is generally considered to be a forgery of late generations.[33] : 115–127 The attributed author, Guan Zhong, described the Yuzhi 禺氏, or Niuzhi 牛氏, as a people from the nor'-west who supplied jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains of Yuzhi 禺氏 at Gansu province.

After the Yuezhi experienced a series of major defeats at the hands of the Xiongnu, during the 2nd century BCE, a chemical group titled the Greater Yuezhi migrated to Bactria, where they constituted the Kushan Empire. By the 1st Century Common Era, the Kushan Empire had distended significantly and may have annexed part of the Tarim Basin.

Tocharian languages [delete]

The degree of differentiation between the language known to modern scholars as Tocharian A (or by the endonym Ārśi-käntwa; "lingua of Ārśi") and Tocharian B (Kuśiññe; [adjective] "of Kucha, Kuchean"), Eastern Samoa well as the less-symptomless attested Tocharian C (which is associated with the city state of Krorän, also known as Loulan), and the absence of evidence for these beyond the Tarim, tends to indicate that a common, early-Tocharian speech existed in the Tarim during the second half of the 1st Millennium BCE. Tocharian is attested in documents between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE, although the first renowned epigraphic evidence dates to the 6th century Cerium.

Although the Tarim mummies preceded the Tocharian texts past several centuries, their shared geographical location and links to Occidental Eurasia have led many scholars to infer that the mummies were bound up the Tocharian peoples.

Arguments for cultural transmission from Westward to East [blue-pencil]

The possible bearing of speakers of Indo-European language languages in the Tarim Basin by most 2000 BCE[34] could, if confirmed, be interpreted as evidence that cultural exchanges occurred among Indo-Aryan and Chinese populations at a rattling primitive date stamp. Information technology has been suggested that much activities as chariot war and bronze-making may have been transmitted to the east by these Indo-European nomads.[5] Mallory and Mair also note that: "Prior to c. 2000 BC, finds of gold-bearing artifacts in China are exceedingly hardly a, simple and, puzzlingly, already made of alloyed copper (and hence questionable)." While stressing that the argument as to whether bronze technology travelled from Taiwan to the West or that "the early bronze technology in China was stirred up by contacts with west steppe cultures", is far from located in scholarly circles, they hint that the manifest so far favours the latter scenario.[35] However, the culture and the technology in the northwest part of Tarim basin were less advanced than that in the Eastside China of Huang He-Erlitou (2070 B.C.E. ~ 1600 BCE) or Majiayao culture (3100 BCE ~ 2600 BCE), the earliest bronze-using cultures in China, which implies that the northwest region did not use copper Beaver State some metal until bronze applied science was introduced to the part by the Shang dynasty in about 1600 BC. The earliest bronzy artifacts in Red China are base at the Majiayao site (betwixt 3100 and 2700 BC),[36] [37] and it is from this location and period of time that Chinese Bronze Age spread. Bronze metallurgy in China originated in what is referred to as the Erlitou (Wade–Giles: Erh-51-t'ou ) period, which some historians argue places it within the range of dates controlled aside the Shang dynasty.[38] Others think the Erlitou sites belong to the preceding Xia (Wade–Giles: Hsia ) dynasty.[39] The US National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the "period between about 2000 Before Christ and 771 BC," which begins with Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou dynasty rule.[40] Though that provides a concise reference system, it overlooks the continued importance of bronze in Chinese metallurgy and culture. Since that was importantly later than the discovery of bronze in Mesopotamia, metallic technology could have been imported, rather than being discovered severally in China. Nevertheless, there is reasonableness to believe that bronzework developed inside China, separately from international tempt.[41] [42]

The Chinese official Zhang Qian, who visited Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE, ready-made the first known Chinese report on many regions Mae West of China. He believed to have discerned Hellene influences in some of the kingdoms. He called Parthia "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transcription of "Arshak" (Arsaces), the name of the founder of Parthian dynasty.[43] Zhang Qian clearly identified Parthia as an innovative urban civilization that farmed cereal and grapes and manufactured smooth-spoken coins and leather goods.[44] Zhang Qian equated Parthia's level of advancement to the cultures of Dayuan in Ferghana and Daxia in Bactria.

The supplying of Tarim Basin jade to China from ancient multiplication is well established, reported to Liu (2001): "It is well known that ancient Chinese rulers had a multipotent attachment to jade. All of the jade items excavated from the grave of Fuhao of the Shang dynasty away Zheng Zhenxiang, Sir Thomas More than 750 pieces, were from Khotan in modern Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. American Samoa early as the mid-first millennium BCE the Yuezhi engaged in the jade trade, of which the major consumers were the rulers of agricultural China."

The Princess of Xiaohe [redact]

Princess of Xiaohe 小河公主 [zh]

The Princess of Xiaohe (Chinese: 小河公主) was unearthed and also named by the archaeologists of Xinjiang Institute of Archeology at Xiaohe Cemetery Tomb M11, 102 km westward of Loulan, Nop Nur, Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region in 2003.[45] She is different from the young-bearing mummy discovered in 1934 delineated below. She has flaxen hair and overnight eyelashes and was wrapped in a white wool cloak with tassels and wore a trilby, bowed stringed instrument skirt, and fur-lined leather boots. She was belowground with woody pins and three small pouches of ephedra and twigs and branches of ephedra were placed beside the body.[46] She is not permanently exhibited in whatsoever museum.

The Beauty of Loulan [delete]

The Mantrap of Loulan - closeup

The Beauty of Loulan (likewise referred to As the Loulan Beauty) is the most famous of the Tarim mummies, along with the Cherchen Man.[47] She was discovered in 1980 by Formosan archaeologists working on a film about the Silk Road. The mummy was observed near Lop Nur. She was belowground 3 feet beneath the ground. The mummy was highly well preserved because of the dry climate and the protective properties of salt.[48] She was wrapped in a woolen cloth; the cloth was successful of 2 classify pieces and was not tumid enough to cover her entire body, thereby leaving her ankles exposed. The Beauty of Loulan was surrounded past funerary gifts.[49] The Beauty of Loulan has been dated back to approximately 1800 BCE.[50]

Life and expiry [redact]

The Beauty of Loulan lived around 1800 BCE, until about the senesce of 45, when she died. Her cause of death is likely owing to lung failure from ingesting a large total of sand, charcoal, and dust.[48] According to Elizabeth Barber, she likely died in the winter because of her provisions against the cold.[49] The rough shape of her clothes and the lice in her hair suggest she lived a difficult sprightliness.[48]

Show and clothing [edit out]

Pilus [edit]

The Stunner of Loulan's hair colour has been described as auburn.[49] Her hair was infested with lice.[48]

Article of clothing [edit]

The Stunner of Loulan is wearing clothing made of wool and fur. Her hood is successful of felt and has a feather in IT.[51] She is wearing rough ankle-high moccasins ready-made of leather, with fur on the outside. Her skirt is made of leather, with pelt on the inside for affectionateness. She is also wearing a woolen ceiling. Accordant to Elizabeth Barber, these provisions against the cold suggest she died during the winter.[49]

Accessories [delete]

The Loulan Beaut possesses a comb, with four teeth remaining. Samuel Barber suggests that this comb was a dual function tool to comb fuzz and to "pack the weft in tightly during weaving."

She possesses a "neatly woven bag Oregon spongelike basket." Grains of wheat were discovered at heart the old bag.[49]

In touristy culture [edit]

A 23-poem sequence connected the Dish of Loulan appears in the Canadian poet Kim Trainor's Karyotype (2015).

Controversies [edit out]

According to Ed Wong's New York City Multiplication article from 2008, Mair was actually prohibited from leaving the country with 52 genetic samples. Still, a Formosan man of science clandestinely sent him sextet, on which an Italian geneticist performed tests.[1]

Since then Chinaware has prohibited alien scientists from conducting research on the mummies. As Wong says, "Despite the political issues, excavations of the serious sites are continuing."[1]

Run across besides [edit out]

  • Pazyryk culture
  • Pontic–Caspian steppe
  • Dzungarian Gate
  • Gushi culture
  • Princess of Xiaohe 小河公主 [zh]

Footnotes [blue-pencil]

  1. ^ a b c Wong, Edward (2008-11-18). "The Dead Tell a Narrative China Doesn't Care to Take heed To". The Untried York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-05-10 .
  2. ^ a b c Mallory &A; Mair (2000), p. 237.
  3. ^ Wade, Nicholas (2010-03-15). "A Master of ceremonies of Mummies, a Timberland of Secrets". The New York Times . Retrieved 2011-06-09 .
  4. ^ a b School of Living Sciences, Jilin University, Nationalist China, (2021). "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies", in ENA, European Nucleotide File away.
  5. ^ a b Baumer (2000), p. 28.
  6. ^ a b c d Coonan, Clifford (August 28, 2006). "A meeting of civilisations: The mystery of Communist China's Celtic mummies". The Independent . Retrieved 11 December 2018.
  7. ^ Keay, John (2015). China (Ebook ed.). HarperPress. ISBN9780007372089. : p. 40
  8. ^ Zhang, F; Ning, C; Scott, A; et al. (2021). "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies". Nature. Interior Department:10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7. Using qpAdm, we modelled the Tarim Basin individuals as a mixture of two ancient autochthonous Asian genetic groups: the ANE, described aside an Upper Palaeolithic item-by-item from the Afontova Gora site in the upper Yenisey River part of Siberia (AG3) (astir 72%), and ancient Northeast Asians, represented by Baikal_EBA (about 28%) (Additive Data 1E and Fig. 3a). Tarim_EMBA2 from Beifang can besides be modelled atomic number 3 a mixture of Tarim_EMBA1 (about 89%) and Baikal_EBA (astir 11%).
  9. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), p. 10.
  10. ^ Though Bodoni Westerners incline to identify this type of lid arsenic the headgear of a hag, thither is evidence that these spiked hats were wide worn by both women and men in whatever Central Asian tribes. For instance, the Persian B. B. King Darius recorded a victory finished the "Sakas of the tapered hats". The Subeshi headdress is likely an ethnic badge or a symbol of position in the society.
  11. ^ "The Mummies of Xinjiang". Discover. April 1, 1994.
  12. ^ Thornton, Christopher P.; Schurr, Theodore G. (2004). "Genes, language, and finish: an example from the Tarim Basin". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 23 (1): 83–106. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2004.00203.x.
  13. ^ Deter-Wolf, Aaron; Robitaille, Benoît; Krutak, Lars; Galliot, Sébastien (February 2016). "The World's Oldest Tattoos". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 5: 19–24. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.007.
  14. ^ Mair, Victor H. (1995). "Mummies of the Tarim Basin". Archaeology. 48 (2): 28–35; the cite appears happening page 30 of this article.
  15. ^ a b c Li, Chunxiang; Li, Hongjie; Cui, Yinqiu; Xie, Chengzhi; Cai, Dawei; Li, Wenying; Winner, Mair H.; Xu, Zhi; Zhang, Quanchao; Abuduresule, Idelisi; Jin, Li; Zhu, Hong; Zhou, Hui (2010). "Evidence that a West-East admixed universe lived in the Tarim Basin as primordial A the early Bronze Age". BMC Biology. 8 (15). doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-15. PMC2838831. PMID 20163704.
  16. ^ Mitochondrial DNA analysis of human corpse from the Yuansha site in Xinjiang Science in Nationalist China Serial C: Biography Sciences Mass 51, Number 3 / March, 2008
  17. ^ a b Li, Chunxiang; Ning, Chao; Hagelberg, Erika; Li, Hongjie; Zhao, Yongbin; Li, Wenying; Abuduresule, Idelisi; Zhu, Hong; Chou dynasty, Hui (2015). "Analysis of ancient human mitochondrial DNA from the Xiaohe cemetery: Insights into prehistoric population movements in the Tarim Basinful, China". BMC Genetics. 16: 78. doi:10.1186/s12863-015-0237-5. PMC4495690. PMID 26153446.
  18. ^ Cardinal, 2010
  19. ^ 中国北方古代人群Y染色体遗传多样性研究--《吉林大学》2012年博士论文 (Study on Genetic Diversity of Y-chromosome in Ancient Inhabitants of Northern China - Jilin University, 2012 PhD Thesis)
  20. ^ Hollard, Clémence; et Camellia State. (2018). "Unprecedented genetic evidence of affinities and discontinuities 'tween bronze age Geographic area populations". American Diary of Physical Anthropology. 167 (1): 97–107. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23607. PMID 29900529.
  21. ^ Barber 1999, p. 72
  22. ^ Extended Data. Table 1. A concise of the Bronzy Age Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region individuals reported in this study
  23. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), pp. 317–318.
  24. ^ Barber 1999, p. 119
  25. ^ Kim, Ronald (2006). "Tocharian". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Philology (2nd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN978-0-08-044299-0.
  26. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), p. 236.
  27. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), pp. 236–237.
  28. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), pp. 260, 294–296, 314–318.
  29. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), p. 318.
  30. ^ Tikhvinskiĭ, Sergeĭ Leonidovich and Leonard Sergeevich Perelomov (1981). China and her neighbours, from past times to the Middle Ages: a compendium of essays. Progress Publishers. p. 124.
  31. ^ Mair, Master H., "Mummies of the Tarim Washbasin," Archeology, vol. 48 (1995), no. 2 (Marching music/April), p. 30 (clause pp. 28-35).
  32. ^ Yu (2003), pp. 34–57, 77–88, 96–103.
  33. ^ Liu, Jianguo (2004), Distinguishing and Correcting the pre-Qin Forged Classics, Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Press, ISBN7-224-05725-8
  34. ^ Mallory and Mair (2000), pp. 317-318.
  35. ^ Mallory and Mair (2000), pp. 327-328.
  36. ^ Martini, I. Peter (2010). Landscapes and Societies: Selected Cases. Springer. p. 310. ISBN978-90-481-9412-4.
  37. ^ Higham, Charles Stuart (2004). Cyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations. Infobase Publication. p. 200. ISBN0-8160-4640-9.
  38. ^ Chang, K. C.: "Studies of Shang Archaeology", pp. 6–7, 1. Yale University Press, 1982.
  39. ^ Changjiang, K. C.: "Studies of Shang Archaeology", p. 1. Yale University Press, 1982.
  40. ^ "Teaching Chinese Archaeology, Part Two — National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency". Nga.gov. Archived from the original connected 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2010-01-17 .
  41. ^ Li-Liu; The Island Neolithic, Cambridge University Iron, 2005
  42. ^ Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The Metal Age of China Heilbrunn Timeline Retrieved May 13, 2010
  43. ^ The Land of Anxi
  44. ^ Silk Road, Northeast China, C. Michael Hogan, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham (2007)
  45. ^ "Expedition Magazine - Penn Museum". www.penn.museum . Retrieved 2021-12-27 .
  46. ^ "The Eternal Mummy Princesses". Discover Magazine . Retrieved 2021-12-27 .
  47. ^ Ercilasun, Konuralp (2018). "Introduction: The Land, the People, and the Politics in a Historical Linguistic context". In Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun, Güljanat; Ercilasun, Konuralp (eds.). The Uyghur Community. The Uyghur Residential area: Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics. Politics and Chronicle in Of import Asia. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 1–16. Department of the Interior:10.1057/978-1-137-52297-9_1. ISBN978-1-137-52297-9.
  48. ^ a b c d Demick, Barbara (November 21, 2010). "A smasher that was regime's beast". Washington Post. Archived from the original connected 2016-08-04. Retrieved 2020-01-26 .
  49. ^ a b c d e Barber 1999, pp. 71–87
  50. ^ "Ancient Mummies of the Tarim Basin | Expedition Magazine". World Wide Web.penn.museum . Retrieved 2020-01-26 .
  51. ^ Mair, V. H. (2010). The mummies of east central Asia. Expedition, 52(3), 23-32.

References [edit]

  • Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999), The Mummies of Ürümchi, London: Cooking pan Books, ISBN0-330-36897-4
  • Baumer, Christoph. (2000). Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin. Dilute Orchid Books. Bangkok. ISBN 974-8304-38-8 (HC); ISBN 974-8304-39-6 (TP).
  • Davis-Kimball, Jeannine, with Mona Behan (2002). Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines. Charles Dudley Warner Books, New York. First Trade book 2003. ISBN 0-446-67983-6 (pbk)
  • Hemphill, Brian E.; Mallory, J.P. (2004), "Horse-decorated invaders from the Russo-Kazakhstan steppe or agricultural colonists from Western Midmost Asia? A craniometric investigating of the Metallic Age settlement of Xinjiang", Terra firma Journal of Physical Anthropology, 125 (3), pp. 199–222, doi:10.1002/ajpa.10354, PMID 15197817 .
  • Larsen, Clark Spencer (2002), "Bioarchaeology: The Lives and Lifestyles of Past Multitude", Diary of Anthropology Research (published June 2002), 10 (2), pp. 119–166, doi:10.1023/A:1015267705803, S2CID 145654453 .
  • Li, Shuicheng (1999), "A Discussion of Sino-Occidental Cultural Contact and Exchange in the Second Millennium BC Supported Recent Archeological Discoveries", Sino-Platonic Papers (published December 1999) (97) .
  • Sunstruck, Nathan (1999a), "Hidden Discourses of Raceway: Imagining Europeans in Nationalist China", given at the Association for Asian Studies conference, Beantown, retrieved 2007-08-20 .
  • Clean, Nathan (1999b), "Tabloid Archaeology: Is Television Trivializing Scientific discipline?", Discovering Archaeology (published March–April 1999), pp. 98–101, archived from the original on 2006-09-20 .
  • Liu, Xinru (2001), "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan. Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Inactive Societies", Journal of World Story, 12 (2), pp. 261–292, doi:10.1353/jwh.2001.0034, S2CID 162211306 .
  • Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Antediluvian China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London: Thames & Hudson .
  • Pliny the Elder, The Natural History .
  • Schurr, Theodore G. (2001), "Tracking Genes Across the Globe: A go over of Genes, Peoples, and Languages, by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza.", North American country Scientist (published January–February 2001), 89 (1) .
  • Chengzhi, Xie; Chunxiang, Li; Yinqiu, Cui; Dawei, Cai; Haijing, Wang; Hong, Zhu; Hui, Zhou (2007). "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of antediluvian Sampula population in Xinjiang". Progress in Natural Skill. 17 (8): 927–933. doi:10.1080/10002007088537493.
  • Yu, Taishan (2003), A Comprehensive History of Western Regions (2nd ed.), Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Conjur, ISBN7-5348-1266-6

External links [edit]

  • Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence mate genetics and archaeology? pdf
  • High-quality images of Tarim-basin mummies
  • Images of the Tocharian mummies Includes the face of the "Mantrap of Loulan" as reconstructed by an creative person.
  • "The Takla Makan Mummies". PBS. Retrieved 17 January 2008.
  • Familial testing reveals infelicitous accuracy astir Xinjiang's famous mummies (AFP) Khaleej Times Online, 19 April 2005
  • The Dead Tell a Tale Mainland China Doesn't Handle to Listen in To The New York City Times, 18 November 2008
  • 'A Host of Mummies, A Forest of Secrets', Nicholas Virginia Wade, The New York State Times, 15 March 2010.

Coordinates: 40°20′11″N 88°40′21″E  /  40.336453°N 88.672422°E  / 40.336453; 88.672422

Where Did the Red Haired Mummies Come From

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim_mummies

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